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THE EARLY CHURCH |
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IGNATIUS 35 - 107 |
Ignatius was born in Syria and associated with the first generation of Christians. Some authors believe that he may have been a disciple of St. John the Evangelist. He certainly was friends with Polycarp, one of John's closest followers. Tradition has it that St. Peter himself made Ignatius the third bishop of Antioch. His letters to churches and to Polycarp were widely quoted in the early church. In about the year 98 AD he was arrested but it took 9 years to get him to face justice (so-called) in Rome. At Rome he pleaded with his influential friends not to interfere with his coming martyrdom. He is reported to have said 'I am the wheat of God. I must be ground by the teeth of wild beasts to become the pure bread of Christ." He was taken to the Coliseum and fed to the lions. |
 POLYCARP
70 - 155 |
Polycarp is a celebrated figure in the history
of Christianity. A direct pupil of the apostle John, he was
connected to both the biblical apostles and the age of the early church
fathers. Among his writings were his letters to the church at Philippi,
in which he encouraged the members to remain strong in their faith and
to flee from materialism. He was the bishop of the church at Smyrna
(modern day Izmir), and was one of the early combatants of Christian
heresies. Polycarp fought against Gnostic heresies that were beginning
to spread throughout the Christian church.
His martyrdom in 155 is one of the best documented events of antiquity. Steadfast in his stand for Christ, Polycarp refused to compromise his beliefs. He was arrested on the charge of being a Christian. Offered a way out by acknowledging the emperor he declared "Eighty and six years have I served Him, and He never did me any injury: how then can I blaspheme my King and my Saviour?". He was burned alive. |
 JUSTIN
MARTYR
103 - 165 |
Most of what is known about the life of Justin Martyr comes from his own writings. He was born at Flavia Neapolis (now modern-day Nablus). According to the traditional accounts of the church, Justin was Martyred in Rome under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius around 165. Justin was brought up as a pagan. Justin loved philosophy, and had studied many philosophies and pagan religions in his search for truth. He was converted in 130 and devoted the rest of his life to teaching Christian philosophy. He travelled widely, finally settling in Rome as a Christian teacher. He was an apologist, and taught that the seeds of truth (logos) could be found in all religions, but that only Christianity taught the whole truth. |
 CLEMENT
OF ALEXANDRIA
150 - 215 |
He was an apologist who used Plato to support
Christianity, and tried to reach gnostics by showing that only the
Christian had real "gnosis" (ie special understanding). He helped establish the
allegorical method of interpreting scripture which tended to
undermine the interpretation of Scripture as historical. In 202 Clement of Alexandria fled to Syria until his death in 215
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TERTULLIAN 160 - 225 |
Tertullian was a prolific early Christian author and apologist from
Carthage in Africa and the first to produce a large volume of writings
in Latin. He has been called the founder of western
theology. He is famous for being the oldest extant Latin
writer to use the term 'Trinity' and writing the oldest extant
document a formal theology of the Trinity. He recognised the New
Testament as we know it, apart from 2 and 3 John which, due to their
brevity, he might not have had.
We do not know much about his life; only from his own writings. His conversion to being a Christian probably took place about 197-198. He was a scholar with an excellent education. He wrote at least three books in Greek. He shone among the advocates of Rome. He objected to Justin's use of philosophy to defend Christianity, saying "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?." As a result of his theological writings Tertullian became the teacher of Cyprian and the predecessor of Augustine, who, in turn, became the chief founder of Latin theology. Thirty-one works are extant, together with fragments of more. He was a determined advocate of strict discipline and an austere code of practice. His moral vigour and the service he provided as an ingenious and intrepid defender of the Christian religion were, for him, down to his view of Christianity as first and chiefly an experience of the heart. |
 ORIGEN
185 - 254 |
He was an early Christian African, a scholar and theologian, and one of the most distinguished writers of the early Christian Church but is not considered as a Church father. Origen was also largely responsible for the coalescence of Christian writings which became the New Testament, although there is evidence that it may have existed as early as 150 AD. A pupil of Clement of Alexandria, he further developed the allegorical method, saying there were 4 levels at which Scripture could be understood: literal, moral, spiritual and mystical. This and his desire to relate to the Neoplatonists in Alexandria led him away from orthodoxy in some matters |
CYPRIAN OF CARTHAGE c.208 - 248 |
Cyprian was a wealthy distinguished man
brought up as a pagan, and highly educated in Carthage. He was also
erudite and elegant: successful in business. Nothing is known of when he
became a Christian but he was baptised in 245/6. In 248/9 he was elected
to be bishop of Carthage upon which he gave much of his wealth to the
poor. The African church was outwardly strong but inwardly weak, with
bishops engaged in trade, some of it questionable, and theologically
weak and confused. The election of Cyprian cause a stir, opposed by
many. Early in 250 the Roman emperor Decius began a fierce campaign of
persecution against Christians, beginning with the bishops. When the
persecution reached Carthage, Cyprian had fled, an act which brought
accusations of cowardice. Some of the bishops in North Africa gave in to
Decius but others stood firm. When the persecution passed there was
considerable disagreement about whether those who had given in should be
accepted back into the church. The church in Rome was critical of Cyprian's view, and
sent him
scathing letters. Towards the end of 250 Cyprian sent two
bishops to Carthage with money for the poor and to try to establish
discipline, but they were opposed by a strong deacon called Felicissimus.
Cyprian returned to Carthage in 251, but in 255 another dispute arose,
this time with the then Pope over whether baptism by heretic clergy was
efficacious. Cyprian maintained it was not and the other African
bishops agreed. The Pope broke communion with them.
At the end of 256 another persecution broke out under Emperor Valerian 1. Both the Pope and his successor were martyred in Rome. Cyprian prepared his people and himself showed courage before the Roman proconsul in August 257. He steadfastly confirmed Christ and refused to worship pagan gods. He was at first banished but after a year was recalled to Carthage and put under house arrest. In September 258 he was imprisoned and on the following day sentenced to die by the sword. It was carried out the same day. |
ATHANASIUS OF ALEXANDRIA 293 - 373 |
Athanasius
was the defender of Orthodoxy during the Arian controversy of the fourth
century. In his time he appeared to be the only defender of
Orthodoxy. At the First Council of Nicea he argued against Arius and
his doctrine that Christ is of a distinct substance from the Father. In
367 a letter of Athanasius names the 66 books of the canon. He was
highly skilled in using both logic and words.
Athanasius is credited with the Creed named after him, but doubt has been cast on his authorship. The creed is a Christian statement of belief focusing on Trinitarian doctrine and Christology. The Athanasian Creed has been used by Christian churches since the sixth century but its use is less common now. It is the first creed in which the equality of the three persons of the Trinity is explicitly stated, and differs from the Nicene and Apostles creeds in that it includes condemnations of those who disagree with the Creed. He died peacefully. |
AMBROSE 340 - 397 |
Ambrose was (reluctantly, at first) the bishop of Milan from 374 to 397, who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical
figures of the 4th century. He was one of the four original 'Doctors of
the church'. It was under his ministry that Augustine of Hippo was
converted. He was governor of Aemilia-Liguria before becoming
bishop.
Upon his appointment he adopted an ascetic lifestyle, giving all his money to the poor. He strongly opposed the influence of Arianism in Milan. He had very good Greek, which was rare in the west and studied the Bible in both Hebrew and Greek. His fight against Arianism involved disputes with many bishops and high level leaders. At the Synod of Aquileia in 381, composed of thirty-two bishops, Ambrose was elected president and as a result of the theological debate the Arian bishops were defeated. But this was not the end of the matter. In 385/386 the emperor and his mother, with many clergy and people, embraced Arianism, and when the emperor asked for two of Milan's churches be given to the Arians, Ambrose refused. Ambrose declared ' If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I will never betray the church of Christ. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the altar rather than desert it.' (Arianism is the theological teaching attributed to Arius AD 250–336, a Christian from Alexandria, concerning the relationship of the entities of the Trinity and the precise nature of the Son of God. He was pronounced a heretic by the First council of Nicaea of 325, and later at First council of Constantinople of 381. The Arian view of Christ is that the Son of God did not always exist, but was created by - and is therefore distinct from and inferior to - God the Father.) |
 JOHN CHRYSOSTOM
c. 345 - 407 |
John Chrysostom was born in Antioch of noble
parents. He studied theology under Diodore of Tarsus while practising
extreme asceticism which seriously damaged his health. His poor health
eventually made him return to Antioch where he was ordained presbyter in
386. Over the ensuing 12 years he became famous as a forceful and
eloquent speaker who could hold his listeners captivated. Hence the
later accolade of being called 'Chrysostom' meaning 'Golden Mouthed'.
Notably he used the historical-grammatical method of explaining the
Bible, not using the allegorical approach which had been common since
Clement and Origen. This straight forward way of understanding the Bible
and his concern for the poor gained him a huge following. In 397 his
preaching helped to end a serious riot in Antioch, resulting in many
conversions. In 398 John Chrysostom reluctantly accepted elevation
to be Bishop of Constantinople. Refusal to take part in sumptuous
parties and other events made him unpopular with the wealthy and popular
with the poor.
He was fearless at denouncing the bad practices of the political and religious leaders resulting in a synod being called against him 403 at which he was deposed and banished. He was recalled quickly due to the anger of the people of Constantinople. But shortly after, a pagan statue was built near the cathedral which John soundly denounced. He was again censured and banished, this time to Georgia. The Pope of the time tried to get him reinstated but to no avail and he was further banished to the far eastern edge of the Black Sea. He died on the way there: his final words being 'Glory be to God for all things'. The failure of the Pope to get him reinstated shows the lack of influence Rome had in the east. What happened to John demonstrated both the power of the state over the Eastern church of his time, and the friction between Constantinople and Alexandria in their rivalry to be the centre of the Eastern church. |
 JEROME
c. 342 - 420
|
Jerome is mainly famous for his translation of
the Bible into Latin - the Vulgate. Initially he
only had the Septuagint which was in Greek to work from, so he learned
Hebrew. He thus discovered that the text was shorter than the Septuagint
and based his translation on the Hebrew. This use of the Hebrew caused
some disquiet as it seemed he was trying to introduce Judaism. Augustine
countered that the Apostles used the Septuagint, with most of their
quotations taken from it.
About 360 he went to Rome where he was baptised and by 373 he was on his way to Antioch where he settled, pursuing an ascetic life. After visiting Constantinople (380-381) but he was forced to escape his enemies and fled, reaching Bethlehem in 386, where he lived in a monastery. Around 384/5 he finished translating the four Gospels and Paul's epistles. It was in 398-405 that he completed his translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew. He held to both the inspiration and the inerrancy of Scripture. He died in Bethlehem in 420. |
 AUGUSTINE
OF HIPPO
354 - 430
|
Augustine (Aurelius Augustinus) was one of the greatest theologians of
Western Christianity. He was born in North Africa in the town of
Tagaste not far from Carthage (modern Tunis). His mother was a
Christian, and his father was a pagan until just before his death. His
mother tried to bring him up as a Christian, and he was attracted to
Christ, but he was more interested in the attractions of sex, fame, and
pride in his own cleverness. At the age of 19 when he was a student at
Carthage he read a treatise by Cicero that opened his eyes to the
delights of philosophy.
He was from the beginning a brilliant student, with an eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered Greek. This was to have a serious affect later in his thinking about the doctrine of justification*. Augustine decided to leave Africa and seek his fortune in Rome where he did well, and was eventually appointed to the prestigious post of chief professor of rhetoric for the city of Milan. In Milan Augustine met the bishop Ambrose, from whom he discovered Christianity to be worthy of intellectual pursuit. Unfortunately he became platonist in thinking, but continued to listen to Bishop Ambrose. Finally, he was converted to Christianity in 386 and was baptised by Ambrose at Easter of 387. After his conversion, in 387 he went back to Africa: was ordained a priest in 391 and eventually, rather against his will, made bishop of Hippo in 396. He particularly concentrated on studying the overwhelming Grace of God, wrote extensively about it and has become known as the 'Doctor of Grace'. His written works famously include his Confessions, The City of God and De Trinitate ("On the Trinity"). He fiercely opposed Pelagius who taught there was no original sin, that man had total free will, thus excluding the grace of God in salvation. * Using only the Latin Bible, Augustine concluded that justification was a process by which believers made themselves, with the help of God, more and more acceptable to Him. This is not the right understanding of justification as taught by St. Paul (Roms 3:21-31 and Eph 2:4-10) Paul insisted that justification was by faith alone, apart from works: an event in which God declares the repentant believer 'not guilty' and restored to full fellowship with Him. Augustine's understanding was the foundation of Roman Catholic belief then and now. The true meaning of Justification was rediscovered by the protestant reformation under Martin Luther. |
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THE MIDDLE AGES |
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 THOMAS
AQUINAS
1225 - 1274 |
He was
born in Aquino in Italy and became a Roman Catholic priest of the
Dominican Order. He was a philosopher and theologian. He sought to
combine theology with Greek Aristotelian thought and mysticism,
concluding that both faith and reason were necessary to understand God.
He was optimistic about the nature of Man and saw Man as essentially
rational and able to see right from wrong. Man could steer a
course to salvation but needed guidance from the Church and state. Thomas
argued that God offers man cooperative grace which is an essential
doctrine in Roman Catholic theology, but which differs from the
protestant doctrine of God's sufficient Grace in Christ for the complete
justification of the believer.
The Roman Catholic Church considers Thomas Aquinas to be one of the 33 'Doctors of the Church' - it's greatest theologian and philosopher. Pope Benedict the XV declared: "The Church has declared Thomas' doctrines to be her own." |
JOHN WYCLIFFE c.1324 - 1384 |
Wycliffe was born in the village of Ipreswell,
Yorkshire, England and went to Balliol College, Oxford University, the
most important university in Europe at the time. He applied himself to the
study of philosophy, ecclesiastical law, and theology. He became master of
Balliol in about 1360 but had to give that up when he was given the clergy
living at Fylingham. But he continued to live in Oxford. Somewhere between
1366 and 1372 he became Doctor of Theology and lectured in
Systematic Divinity.
Wycliffe's interest in reformation in the church began in the mid-1370s mainly as a result of his study of the Bible and also through meeting European evangelicals. But he also became involved in ecclesiastical matters through the growing opposition to the Pope having the right to extract feudal tribute from the people of England. He was greatly opposed to the temporal role of the clergy and thought the church was a long way from what it ought to be, bearing little similarity with the teaching of Christ and the apostles. Wycliffe preached his ideas widely and was particularly well-regarded in London where he had a big following. At first the Roman Catholic Church had not been worried about Wycliffe's pronouncements but that changed and English clergy attacked him. Rome issued a Papal Bull against him. He wrote widely and presented his views before Parliament. At one time he was virtually imprisoned by the Chancellor of Oxford under pressure from Rome. At around this time Wycliffe was also engaging in his most important work, the truth and sufficiency of Scripture. This brought him to a correct understanding of the Gospel. He wrote 'Beware of seeking to be justified in any other way than by His [Christ's] righteousness". He increasingly used Scripture to refute his critics and declared all Scripture to be the only basis for all Christian doctrine and the only authority by which the church should determine its beliefs and teaching. The growing number of ordinary clergy who followed his views were called the 'Lollards' He wrote, “The Church is the totality of those who are predestined to blessedness. It includes the Church triumphant in heaven… and the Church militant or men on earth. No one who is eternally lost has part in it. There is one universal Church, and outside of it there is no salvation. Its head is Christ. No pope may say that he is the head, for he can not say that he is elect or even a member of the Church.” In the last years of his life the books and tracts he wrote included continual attacks upon the papacy and the entire hierarchy it incorporated. Along with his promotion of Scripture as the only authority for the church and all Christian belief, Wycliffe was concerned to produce a new English translation of the Vulgate Bible so that all the people could read it. He probably did not do the entire translation but he certainly initiated it and urged it. This was so at odds with the views of his opponents that they are reported to have written 'The jewel of the clergy has become the toy of the laity.' The church hierarchy did everything they could to destroy it, but there are still extant about 150 partial or complete manuscripts of his translation. It was very influential in the later translation called the 'King James Version'. Wycliffe is regarded as the main precursor of the Protestant Reformation and has been called 'the Morning Star of the Reformation'. He died in Lutterworth, Leicestershire in 1384. The Pope was so infuriated by his teachings and his translation of the Bible into English, that 44 years after Wycliffe had died, he ordered his bones to be dug-up, crushed, and scattered in the river! For further details of Wycliffe's life and work, see www.greatsite.com and www.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wycliffe |
JOHN HUS(S) 1371- 1415 |
John Huss was born in Bohemia (modern Czech
Republic). He studied at Charles University
in Prague and became Professor of Theology in 1398. He was ordained in
1400 and made Rector of the university in 1402.
In his day there was a political crisis in the western church: in 1404 the seat of the Popes moving to Avignon in France where it remained for 70 years. At one time there two popes, one Italian and the other French. In the meantime Huss had begun to preach against matters of church discipline and practice. He was very influenced by the teachings of John Wycliffe who had questioned the practices of the hierarchy of the church. For example, Hus opposed the restriction of the cup at Holy Communion just to the priests. And as the sale of indulgencies became more common, initially to finance the political ambitions of one of the candidates for Pope, he strongly opposed the practice. In 1414 he was summoned to appear at the Council of Constance. He denied believing some false doctrines they accused him of, but he did believe that the position of Pope was not by Divine Command, but only a matter of orderliness in the church. He was found guilty by the Council and burned at the stake in July 1415. After the death of Huss his followers continued to press for the administration of the sacrament in both kinds and in 1436 the Bohemian church was authorised to give both the bread and the wine to all communicants. The followers of John Huss eventually became known as the Moravians and had a lot of influence on the Lutheran movement. Luther was regarded as the spiritual heir of Huss. |
ERASMUS 1466 -1536 |
Erasmus was born in Rotterdam and many years
later after his parents' death he entered an Augustinian monastery where
he stayed for 6 years. He took a great dislike to the monks and their
way of life. Eventually after taking priests orders in 1492, he moved to
Paris where he stayed until 1498 earning his living by teaching - as an
independent scholar. One of this more illustrious pupils invited him to
England and he lived in Oxford. But by 1500 he was back in Paris. In
1506 he had a busy year of travel, first returning briefly to England
and them going to Italy where he was appointed tutor to Alexander, the
Archbishop of St Andrews, the natural son of James IV of Scotland. He
made a short visit to Rome.
At the invitation of his former pupil and the coming of Henry VIII to the throne, Erasmus made his home in England, living mostly in Cambridge. There he was Professor of Divinity and Professor of Greek. He attacked superstition and corruption in the church. He was a great friend of Thomas More to whom he dedicated his famous 1509 work 'The Praise of Folly' in which he promoted the return to a simpler form of Christianity. From1514 he lived in both England and Basel going back and forth to live. In 1516 he published his annotated New Testament in Greek and three years later his work on St Jerome. His aim in these publication was to initiate a more reasoned approach to Christian doctrine. Also in 1519 he wrote his Colloquia which is regarded as his masterpiece. His cutting criticism of the abuse of the church paved the way for the subsequent reformation under Luther, although Erasmus remained a Roman Catholic. During his long years of highly reasoned writing , Erasmus attracted much fame but he did have serious disagreements with Luther and others. All his writing demonstrated his great learning and brilliance and he did more than anyone to advance the recovery of learning. |
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1483 - 1546 |
The life and work of Martin Luther is of
enormous significance and can only be summarised here. There is further
explanation on this website on the page 'Augustine's Mistake and
Luther's Rediscovery' Click
here to go there. He was born the son of a miner in Eisleben,
Germany which at that time was part of the Holy Roman Empire. His
father Hans Luther was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. At the
age of 19, in 1501, Luther entered the University of Erfurt, gaining his
master's degree in 1505. For a brief time he studied philosophy but
found it unsatisfying because he felt it could not lead him to God. He
was an earnest seeker after God. Experiencing a frightening thunderstorm
his fear of judgement and death came home to him. In July 1505 he sold
his books and entered an Augustinian
monastery. He was ordained priest in 1507.
Seeking peace with God, he undertook a rigorous programme of fasting, penance and prayers but found it did not help him to find peace. So he began to search the Scriptures for an answer. Over the ensuing years, he went through various stages of understanding as he tried to sort out precisely what the Bible taught. (That is why it is so important to be careful about the way people quote Luther, especially from his earlier years.) Luther's concern was how he, a sinner, could stand before a holy God. 'How can I be forgiven?' was his constant anxiety. Romans 3:21 '... now a righteousness from God has been made known..' made him tremble. How could he stand before the righteous God now that God's righteousness had been demonstrated in His Son? It took a long time of searching and studying and it was only through Paul's letter to the Galatians that Luther came to understand the answer. It was in 1515 that he came to understand that this revealed righteousness was not a threat at all, but a gift credited to the believer! Luther later wrote of what had happened when he realised for the first time that the 'righteousness from God' was God's credited gift to the believer so that he could be acceptable. He said "At last, by the mercy of God, meditating day and night, I gave heed to the context of the words, namely 'In it the righteousness of God is revealed' as it is written, 'he who through faith is righteous shall live'. There I began to understand that the righteousness of God is that by which the righteous lives by a gift of God, namely by faith. And this is the meaning: the righteousness of God is revealed by the Gospel, namely the passive righteousness with which merciful God justifies us by faith, as it is written 'he who through faith is righteous, shall live.' Here I felt that I was altogether born again and and entered paradise through open gates. The whole Scripture took on a new meaning" (quoted by Alister McGrath in Justification by Faith; Marshall Pickering UK 1988, p.51) After this, with the door of his understanding wide open Luther began to expound his new discovery and the Reformation really began. It was Luther who first described credited righteousness as 'alien righteousness' to emphasise that it did not come in any way from us. He was a very passionate man and argued fiercely for the truth with those who challenged it. He came to believe that justification through faith alone was so important that he called it 'the article of the standing or falling church'. In 1510 Luther was sent to Rome on monastic business and he was appalled by what he discovered. The Church was corrupt; He recounted how priests would chant offensive language instead of proper prayers, because the common people could not understand anyway. He returned to Erfurt thoroughly disillusioned by the Church he served. But Luther was also strongly affected by the teachings of John Wycliffe and John Huss, both of whom had powerfully opposed the practices of the hierarchy of the church, even of the Pope himself. Luther was especially scandalised by the practice of selling indulgencies and he had a serious ally on this matter - Philip Melancthon, the Professor at Wittenberg University who became a vital partner with Luther in the Reformation. In 1517 Luther nailed his famous 95 Theses to the door of his church in Wittenberg as the first public act of the Reformation. Naturally, there was a strong reaction to Luther's teaching from the Roman Catholic Church. There was much controversy. In 1520 the Pope issued a Bull against Luther and the next year he was summoned to the Diet of Worms where he was challenged to confirm or deny his teachings. The Emperor Charles v presided over the Diet. Luther defended his beliefs and was condemned in the Edict of Worms, as follows;
Luther was excommunicated but escaped arrest and went to Wartburg under the protection of the Prince, where he remained in the castle and living in seclusion, translated the Bible into German and wrote other treatise. In 1530 the newly discovered doctrine of the Reformation was enshrined in the Ausburg Confession. Luther challenged the authority of the Pope about his authorisation of indulgences; he maintained that salvation was by faith alone, not through obeying the church or by personal effort; and he confronted the church by asserting that the Bible is the only authority for Christian belief, and that all practices that did not arise from the Bible should be stopped. Luther died in 1546 having set in train a Reformation that (outside the Roman Catholic Church) would transform Christian belief all over Europe and eventually, the world. He and those who have followed his teachings ever since are called 'protestants' because they protest for the Authority of Scripture and Salvation by Faith Alone, by Grace Alone, by Christ Alone and the Scripture Alone. |
 ULRICH
ZWINGLI1484 - 1531
|
Zwingli was born during a time of a growth
in patriotism in Switzerland which up to this period consisted of a
federation of city states or cantons, not as an over all nation. This
greatly influenced his fortunes (as it did Calvin's). He studied at both
the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, and contributed to
the teachings of the Reformation, living at the same time as Luther and
meeting him to discuss their various views. He knew and debated with
Philipp Melancthon, not always agreeing with him. Basel was a centre for
humanist thought. Humanism is the name given to a movement of social
philosophy and intellectual thought during the period of 1400 to 1650,
in which worldly pleasures and the pagan classics (eg. the Greeks)
returned to favour and the foundations of secularism were constructed.
These movements would have made the spread and the influence of the
reformation more difficult except for the fact that the movement was
also associated with a rise in independent thought and expression. These
gave people the opportunity to think independently of what the church
taught. Zwingli was also much influenced by the writings of Erasmus who
had also attacked the corrupt practices of the church.
In 1517 Zwingli became the pastor of the city church in Zurich where he preached on matters related to reforming the Roman Catholic Church, but it was not until 1522 that he really began in earnest to seek to reform the church in Zurich. He first attacked the practice of fasting during Lent because it was not to be found in the Bible. The next year, the city council arranged a public debate in which the Bible was to be the only reference to be used. Zwingli prepared many documents which declared and argued from the Bible that the church could not define salvation, only the Bible could, and that salvation was by faith alone, not by faith plus works which the church taught. In summary Zwingli insisted that the Bible was the only authority for what Christians are to believe and the only guide to church practice. He denied the sacrifice of the mass (saying that Christ's sacrifice was once and for all, not be repeated), praying to saints, the existence of purgatory and proclaimed that Christ and Christ alone was the Head of the church. Zwingli won the debate and the city council instructed Zwingli ( and all the other pastors in the city) to go on preaching his new ideas. The new reformed theology was adopted by many of the Swiss cantons, but not by all, and at one time, in 1529, there was almost a war between them. Zwingli formed the reformed cantons into a confederation. Around this time Zwingli came to the attention of Luther and they met, with other reformers, at Marburg. They agreed on many doctrine but Luther and Zwingli fundamentally differed on the meaning of the Eucharist. Both rejected the Roman Catholic teaching of transubstantiation, but Luther believed in 'consubstantiation' which said that that the bread and wine of Communion are spiritually the body and blood of Christ while remaining actually only bread and wine. Zwingli maintained that they were only symbols of Christ' body and blood. He believed that baptism is a covenant sign replacing the circumcision sign of the Old Testament. Zwingli adopted and advocated an approach to Bible study and preaching that we today would call 'expository' - taking the verse's or passage's context into account and seeking out the meaning and purpose of the text. |
 WILLIAM
TYNDALE
1494 - 1536
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Tyndale was born in Gloucestershire, England. He gained his MA from Oxford University in 1515 at the early age of 21. He was for some time the tutor to an aristocratic Gloucestershire family and a well-known story from this time concerns his taunting of visiting clergy by testing them to identify or quote verses of Scripture. At this time the clergy were not very attentive to the Scriptures. He promised to one visiting high ranking member of the clergy that he meant to translate the Bible into English so that the ploughboys would be more knowledgeable than he was! But he was indeed a very gifted linguist. One of those who knew him said he was “so skilled in eight languages – Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Spanish, French, Italian, English, and German, that whichever he speaks, you might think it his native tongue!” He was seriously committed to the principles of the Reformation, disagreed strongly with the Roman Catholic Church and intent on translating the Bible into English. In about October 1523 local opposition forced him to go to London where he preached and was popular among the laity, but the clergy ignored him. He enjoyed the hospitality of a merchant Sir Humphrey Mount who financially backed his work to translate the Bible. He was intent that the English he used was that of the common man. He asked Bishop Tunstall of London for his support but was refused. The opposition to him became much greater so he moved to the continent in May 1524, travelling to Wittenberg where it is possible that he met Luther, although this is not certain. However, Tyndale was very well acquainted with his writings. But it was in Cologne in 1525 that his translation of the English New Testament was begun and first printed. He further translated the Pentateuch in 1530 and Jonah in 1531. His literary output was enormous. He improved his Hebrew so much that he eventually translated 'the Books of Joshua, Judges, Ruth, First and Second Samuel, First and Second Kings, First Chronicles, contained in Matthew's Bible of 1537, and of the Book of Jonah, so excellent, indeed, that his work is not only the basis of those portions of the Authorized King James Version of 1611, but constitutes nine-tenths of that translation, and very largely that of the English Revised Version of 1885.' (Ref. www.greatsite.com) Tyndale was hunted by the Catholic authorities and magistrates were persuaded to close down the printing works that were producing the new translation. So Tyndale fled to Worms where the printing went on successfully. In 1526 copies of Tyndale's English New Testament started to arrive in London and was given a very hostile reception by the church. The bishops and Thomas More both opposed it and Wolsey demanded Tyndale's arrest as a heretic. So the copies were smuggled in, in bags of merchandise from the continent. His opposition to Henry VIII's divorce made the King into his enemy. Eventually was betrayed while living in Antwerp. But his time living in secret on the continent gave Tyndale the opportunity to write many works of Bible interpretation na ddisputes with others. After his arrest, Tyndale was imprisoned in the castle at Vilvoorden for about a year and a half in the most awful conditions. He was then tried for heresy and treason at a completely and manifestly unfair trial. Found guilty he was then burnt at the stake in the prison on Oct. 6, 1536. The only mercy shown him was that he was strangled before he was burnt. His last words were, "Lord, open the king of England's eyes." But in the year of his death, Tyndale's New Testament began to be printed in England too because if the rising atmosphere of reform. His prayer was answered three years later, in the publication and distribution of King Henry VIII’s 1539 English “Great Bible”. Tyndale's English translation and the English idiom he composed was continued into the King James Bible published in 1611. Many of the phrases and expressions that Tyndale used have become part of the English Language now used through the world. It is impossible to exaggerate the influence Tyndale had on the reformation in England and on the English Language. |
 PHILIPP
MELANCTHON
1497 - 1560 |
Born Philipp Schwartzerdt, Melancthon (the Greek equivalent) was the
German reformer who was a partner with Luther in the formulation of the
doctrine newly discovered through his enlightened study of the Bible. He
attacked the corruption of the then Roman Catholic Church. At the tender age of 13, in 1509 he entered the University of Heidelberg to study mainly philosophy. After gaining his masters degree in 1516 he began to study theology but came to the conclusion that true Christianity was very different what he saw around him in the Church and what it taught. He was attracted by Luther to go to the University of Wittenberg as Professor of Greek and after intense study of the Scripture he came to embrace the doctrines of the authority of Scripture and of salvation by faith alone and not by the merit of our works, that Luther had re-discovered. Of great importance were Melancthon's confirmation and expansion of the biblical ideas that formed the basis of the Reformation. He expounded the Epistle to the Romans to this end. In his work Loci communes (1521) he constructed the first systematic presentation of the principles of the Reformation. The 'Augsburg Confession' that was laid before the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, and justifiably referred to as the most significant document of the Reformation, was largely Melancthon's work. However Luther was somewhat disappointed by Melancthon's irenic tone and his timidity at the Diet. After this Melancthon settled down to academic study and in 1532 produced his work Commnentarii in Epistolam Pauli ad Romanos in which he clearly stated that 'to be justified' means 'to be accounted just', in opposition to Roman Catholic teaching that to be justified is not a declaration, but a process by which a person my become, assisted by God's grace, more and more acceptable to God. Melancthon was a great educationalist, earning the title of Praeceptor Germaniae (Perceptor of Germany) and is credited with creating the German classical school system. |
 JOHN CALVIN1509 - 1564 |
Calvin was born Jean Cauvin in Noyon, in Picady, France. His father held
an important post as a lawyer in the Cathedral. At first he wanted Calvin
to be a priest but later changed his mind, as the law was more remunerative.
Indeed Calvin did study law at the University of Orleans, but he
eventually became a pastor of the Reformation, and the prime mover of the
system of Christian Theology known as Calvinism. He never knew Luther but
he fully embraced the doctrines of the reformers, and developed them
further. He was a diligent apologist and polemic writer.
While training in law, Calvin learned Greek - so he could study the New Testament. He already knew Latin. He was later to learn Hebrew as well, fitting him well to being a biblical scholar. He broke his adherence with the Roman Catholic Church in around 1530. Some five years earlier he had a spiritual experience, which he never described - only referring to it in his Commentary on the Psalms, but which led him to accept the Protestant teachings spreading through France at the time. But it was not long before persecution of protestants began in France and Calvin fled to Basel. It was there, in 1536 that he published the first edition of The Institutes of the Christian Religion which has had a enormous influence on Christian thinking ever since. The Institutes were a defence of the teachings of the Reformers and intended to be instructional to anyone investigating Christianity. Around this time, Calvin was recruited by another ardent reformer, William Farel, to go to Geneva and help reform the churches there. But the local city council opposed change and they were ejected from the city. Another reformer Martin Brucer invited them both to Strasburg where Calvin became the minister of the protestants who had fled from the persecution in France. However, he continued to support the reformation in Geneva and was soon invited back. Many powerful people opposed Calvin and his reforms, but eventually with the support of others who fled to Geneva, they were forced out. He kept in contact with Philipp Melancthon and wrote tirelessly defending the doctrines of the Reformation. He also wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible and theological articles. He preached several times a week in Geneva. He developed the doctrines of the sovereignty of God and predestination. The final edition of The Institutes of Religion was completed in 1559 and was composed of 80 chapters arranged into 4 volumes. He wrote 'For anyone to arrive at God the Creator he needs Scripture as his Guide and Teacher.' In the third volume he spends several chapters on the subject of justification by faith which he describes as 'the acceptance by which God regards us as righteous whom he has received into grace.' He maintained that God is completely sovereign in salvation. In the fourth volume, he expounds his view of what the true church should be and denied papal authority. He described how the church should exercise its ministry and authority and administer the two sacraments (baptism and the Lord's Supper) and declared that the church was the body of believers who had placed Christ at its head. There is hardly a doctrine or practice that Calvin did not examine, develop, and write about. In later years the great preacher Charles Haddon Spurgeon was to declare 'Among all those who have been born of women, there has not risen a greater than John Calvin; no age before him ever produced his equal, and no age afterwards has seen his rival. In theology, he stands alone, shining like a bright fixed star, while other leaders and teachers can only circle round him, at a great distance — as comets go streaming through space — with nothing like his glory or his permanence.' |
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Page two of this work is under development and will be published when completed |
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